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URBAN INDICATORS
TOOL KIT
GUIDE
1. Introduction
2. The minimum data set
3. Collecting and compiling data
4. Methodological issues
5. Taking gender into account
6. Indicators methodology sheets
7. Using the Toolkit spreadsheets
8. Annexes
a. Adjusting money quantities to US dollars
b. General definitions
1. Introduction
This guide is a companion document to
the attached Urban Indicators Toolkit designed by UNCHS (Habitat) for reporting
on progress in the implementation of the Habitat Agenda.
The Indicators Toolkit is a simple
user-friendly spreadsheet for collecting and analysing a minimum data set
composed of 23 key urban indicators and 9 qualitative data sub-sets for the
Istanbul +5 assessment.
Supplementary
to the minimum data set, UNCHS (Habitat) has prepared several additional tools
which Habitat partners are encouraged to use for measuring progress in the
implementation of the Habitat Agenda:
§
An extended set of
indicators from which Habitat partners may select the most relevant for
their situation;
§
An easy-to-use “citizen
satisfaction survey” or “urban report card”;
§
A set of four process indicators to measure
participation in decision-making ;
§
A simple method for content
analysis of newspaper reports on urban issues.
These tools are available upon request to the Urban Indicators
Programme, UNCHS (Habitat) and on its homepage at:
<http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators>.
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2. The minimum data set
Based
on the Habitat Agenda and on Resolutions 15/6 and 17/1 of the United Nations
Commission on Human Settlements, UNCHS (Habitat) has developed an indicators
system that contains a set of 23 key indicators and nine lists of qualitative data. These are the minimum data required for
reporting on shelter and urban development consistent with the twenty key areas
of commitment in the universal reporting
format.
Indicators are supposed to measure
performances and trends in the 20 selected key areas, and to measure progress
in the implementation of the Habitat Agenda.
Indicators provide a comprehensive picture of cities, which, with other
indicators which may be chosen by countries, will provide a quantitative,
comparative base for the condition of cities, and show progress towards
achieving urban objectives.
Two different types of data are included in the minimum set:
·
Key indicators, comprising indicators which are both important for
policy and relatively easy to collect. They are either numbers, percentages and
ratios;
·
Qualitative data or check-lists, which give an assessment of
areas which cannot easily be measured quantitatively. They are audit questions
generally accompanied of checkboxes for yes or no answers.
For country
reporting, indicators should be collected and analysed for at least one major
city in order to establish the dimensions of national urban conditions, trends
and issues. To provide a better
diagnosis of urbanization within a country, it is recommended that indicators
be collected for a representative sample of cities based on size, economic
development, location or other variables relevant to the country's system of
human settlements.
It is important that the minimum data set be submitted as part of
the country report annex. The
resulting global database will provide the statistical foundation for
development of composite indices of urban poverty, urban human development,
city investment potential, urban environment, urban governance and overall quality
of urban life.
The indicators are classified into five chapters and subclassified
into the 20 key areas of the Istanbul +5 Universal
Reporting Format (table 1).
Table 1: List of indicators corresponding
to the 20 Habitat Agenda key areas of commitment.
CHAPTER 1: Shelter
1. Provide security of tenure
indicator 1:
tenure types
indicator 2:
evictions
2. Promote the right to
adequate housing
qualitative data 1:
housing rights
indicator 3:
housing price-to-income ratio
3. Provide equal access to land
indicator 4:
land price-to-income ratio
4. Promote equal access to
credit
indicator 5:
mortgage and non-mortgage
5. Promote access to basic
services
indicator 6:
access to water
indicator 7:
household connections
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CHAPTER 4: Economic
Development
15. Strengthen small and micro-enterprises,
particularly those developed by women
indicator 20:
informal employment
16. Encourage public-private sector partnership
and stimulate productive employment opportunities
qualitative data 5:
public-private partnerships
Indicator 21:
city product
indicator 22:
unemployment
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CHAPTER 2: Social
development and eradication of poverty
6. Provide equal opportunities
for a safe and healthy life
indicator 8:
under-five mortality
indicator 9:
crime rates
qualitative data 2:
urban violence
7. Promote social integration
and support disadvantaged groups
indicator 10:
poor households
8. Promote gender equality in human
settlements development
indicator 11:
female-male gaps
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CHAPTER 5: Governance
17. Promote
decentralisation and strengthen local authorities
qualitative data 6:
level of decentralization
18. Encourage and support participation and
civic engagement
qualitative data 7:
citizen involvement in major planning decisions
19. Ensure
transparent, accountable and efficient governance of towns, cities and
metropolitan areas
qualitative data 8: transparency and
accountability
indicator 23: local government revenue
and expenditures
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CHAPTER 3:
Environmental Management
9. Promote
geographically-balanced settlement structures
indicator 12:
urban population growth
10. Manage supply and demand for water in an effective manner
indicator 13:
water consumption
indicator 14:
price of water
11. Reduce urban pollution
indicator 15:
air pollution
indicator 16:
wastewater treated
indicator 17:
solid waste disposal
12. Prevent disasters and
rebuild settlements
qualitative data 3: disaster prevention and
mitigation instruments
13. Promote effective and environmentally sound transportation
system
Indicator 18:
travel time
Indicator 19:
transport modes
14. Support mechanisms to prepare and implement local
environmental plans and local Agenda 21 initiatives
qualitative data 4:
local environmental plans
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CHAPTER 6: International Cooperation
20. Enhance international cooperation and
partnerships
qualitative data 9: engagement in international cooperation
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3. Collecting and compiling data
Who should collect the
data ?
It is expected
that completion of the indicators survey will be a collaborative effort, rather
than the work of a single individual. Some results can be completed solely by
reference to secondary materials. Others will require consultation with a small
group of experts. Also, it is vital to get knowledgeable experts to interpret
the survey and provide their most informed judgment on the values of the
indicators.
The experience with the indicators programme to date has
demonstrated that in order to obtain good data,
i) highly qualified experts and officials
in each country need to be consulted for the collection and estimation of the
indicators;
ii)
these experts should be in direct communication with UNCHS, and work
should be reviewed and commented on at different stages.
No single person is expected to be simultaneously conversant with
each of the areas, and experts or departments with knowledge of each area will
need to be contacted by the persons responsible for overall compilation of the
data, in order to obtain authoritative estimates for each area.
What is the year of
reference ?
As you may recall, for the Habitat II
Conference, the year of reference for data collection was 1993. For Istanbul
+5, the year of reference will be 1998, 5 years after.
For cities which have collected information for the
Habitat II Conference, complete 1993 results are available in the Global Urban
Indicators Database residing on the following homepage: http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators
Country
or city level data ?
While some data should be reported at the country level
only (national level data) and other at the city level only (city level data),
some information should be provided for both city level and country level. The
level of collection is indicated for each of the indicators in the reporting
sheets below.
For
city level data, the standard area of reference is the urban agglomeration.
When data for the Urban Agglomeration is not available, data for the
Metropolitan Area might be used. This
should be indicated in a note page attached to the results.
The urban agglomeration
is defined as the built-up or densely populated area containing the city
proper; suburbs, and continuously settled commuter areas. This may be smaller
or larger than the metropolitan area.
The metropolitan area is the set of formal local government
areas which are normally taken to comprise the urban area as a whole and its
primary commuter areas.
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The success of
indicators reporting depends on getting the most accurate information presently
available. Where recent published data is available, this is preferable. If
published data are not available or are not recent enough, the best estimates
possible should be obtained.
The suggestions
given below for collection of individual indicators vary between using “hard”
data, i.e. published data which is desirable but not readily available for all
indicators, and using “soft” data, i.e. indirect evidence or the informed
opinion of experts. The preferred option should always be to use published data
(adjusted for year, definition, etc.) whenever it is available and recent
enough. For all data collected, the guiding principles are that it should be
the best available, the latest available, and that it should be fully
documented.
Disaggregated
data of high quality and comparability may be difficult to achieve. Often there
are a number of different ways to approximate an answer. Implicit in all of the
indicators, however, is the possibility of quoting published data or of using a
different methodology. If this is done, then the source or methodology should
be documented completely in an annexe. If the data provided are for anything
other than the stated definition, please explain the differences in the notes
section at the end of the modules and sub-modules.
It is not
expected that new household surveys will be initiated to collect data. For
areas which might eventually require detailed household or other surveys, we
generally suggest obtaining an estimate or an “educated guess” from a group of
expert observers in the field.
For all data collected, the guiding principles are that they should
be the best available, the latest available, and that they should be fully
documented. In most cases though, an approximate result is very much
preferred over no result, and may give guidance to improved future
collection methods. It is necessary to keep in mind the systemic relationships
among indicators. The total picture of each sector and of the city as a whole
is more important than a highly accurate value for any one variable, and highly
inaccurate values for all others. Data which might be insufficiently accurate
for a detailed study of a single indicator, or for examining short-term
variations in a single indicator, may be accurate enough for sector-wide
evaluations. Precision may be less critical for a broad, cross-city or cross-country
analysis than it would first appear because the error in measurement will
usually be much smaller than the variations between cities.
One of
the problems in collecting urban indicators will be the large number of
government agencies holding the data. Each sector, e.g. transport, water etc.
tends to be handled by a different authority, and consequently collecting the
indicators is likely to require a larger number of contacts and to take long if
not coordinated in a timely manner. Another problem will be the different
arrangements for the provision of urban services in different countries,
particularly those with a federal system. In these countries, many typical
local government functions including education, housing, police, water and
planning are often undertaken by state governments, and methodology to maintain
comparability with cities where these functions are carried out by local
governments will need to be developed. As well, there are often a number of
municipalities in any city, and unless local government statistics are
collected centrally in a consistent way, there may be a good deal of difficulty
involved in assembling local government data for the whole city.
Some indicators such
as household size do not change quickly, and older data may safely be used,
with extrapolation if necessary. Other series such as price data or incomes
will change rapidly, and it is essential to have the most recent data possible.
The dates for the data used, the method of calculation or estimation, and the
sources used should be documented in a note annex. Please note that, in general, stock data (e.g. unemployment, housing
stock) should preferably be estimated as the average value during the year, but
can be taken as the value at the middle of the year.
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In many countries and areas of life, analysis of the
status of women in human settlements is not easy because data do not exist. The
contribution that women make to development, as well as the discrimination
against them, are equally hidden. Efforts to obtain sufficient and factual
information about the state of the housing and urban sectors should be made in
relation to overall economic, social and environmental development. The
availability of statistics and indicators which quantify the specific roles and
conditions of life of men and women can influence changes in public perception
and hence policies. If collected by countries, such indicators will provide a
sound basis for the formulation and implementation of housing and urban
development policies that are sensitive to the roles of different members of
the society.
This document includes a
gender-perspective in indicators, by proposing that effort should be made to
disaggregate indicators by sex as much as possible.
The purpose of the disaggregation of indicators by
sex is :
- to measure the role of men and women in urban
development and shelter;
- to monitor urban and shelter sectors, taking
gender into account;
- to integrate the gender dimension in policies,
indicators being policy tools.
However, data collection may be a
difficult task given the unavailability of disaggregated data in many countries.
In any case, data disaggregation must be a primary concern in enabling a gender
approach to urban and shelter sector planning and monitoring. All actors should
recognize the value and relevance of gender-sensitivity and should introduce a
gender-aware approach in further data collection efforts at the national and
city levels.
While
most of the indicators should have disaggregated results by gender, other types
of disaggregation might be considered, depending on the particular urban
context. They might be:
-
by type of settlements: in most developing countries, it is
useful to obtain data disaggregated for formal and informal urban settlements,
generally slum and non-slum areas; results such as on the tenure status, price
of utilities or level of services vary dramatically between formal and informal
areas.
-
by districts: information disaggregated by districts is
extremely useful for planning in a variety of issues related to shelter,
socio-economic development, environmental management and governance. Cities
which have highly developed data collection and analysis systems are generally
able to provide data by wards, districts or sectors. Such information will
easily be compiled into a geographical information system which will allow
mapping of urban performances by sectors.
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by communities: cities which have strong community differences
might collect information by communities, especially, on tenure types
(indicator 1), access to services (indicators 6 and 7), poor households
(indicator 10), employment (indicators 20 and 22). This information will
provide a useful background for assessing the level of inclusion of the
different communities.
-
by age groups: disaggregation by group of age can provide crucial
information which allow adequate age-groups targeting for a number of policy
areas such as crime and safety (indicator 9), poverty alleviation or employment
(indicators 10, 20, 22); common used age groups are 0-4 years, 5-14 years,
15-24 years, 25-59 years, more than 60 years.
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6. Indicators
methodology sheets
This section describes the minimum data set, with explanation
about:
1.
significance of each
indicator for analysing urban conditions and trends and their meaning in the
Habitat Agenda;
2.
definitions adopted by
UNCHS (Habitat) in accordance with international standards, in order to
facilitate comparisons of data when possible;
3.
methodology for obtaining
and collecting the data, as well as for calculating the results;
4.
ways and methods for taking gender
into account for each indicator;
5.
collection level for each indicator (country or
city level);
6.
linkages between
indicators in order to relate the analysis of each indicator result with other
ones (e.g. the crime rates (indicator 9) might be related to the level of poverty
(indicator 10) and unemployment (indicator 22)).
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Indicator 1:
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Tenure types
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Reporting chapter:
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SHELTER
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Habitat Agenda commitment:
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Provide security of tenure
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Significance:
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This indicator provides an overview
of the share of different tenure status among urban dwellers. Among the
safest tenure are ownership, purchasing and tenants in social housing and
when rental regulations are protective enough, private tenancy can offer a
fairly safe tenure to households. The most common precarious tenure statuses
are homelessness and squatter, which can also be used as distinct indicators.
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Definitions:
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percentage of woman and man-headed households in the following
tenure categories:
(a) owned; (b) purchasing; (c) private rental: (d) social
housing; (e) sub-tenancy; (f) rent free;
(g) squatter no rent; (h) squatter rent paid; (I) homelessness;
(j) other.
·
Owned refers to households with a clear title or
ownership (formal housing) of the house and land they occupy, possibly through a company
structure or as condominiums or strata title, or long leasehold of land. Purchasing refer to owner-occupiers
in formal housing with a formal mortgage over the property.
·
Private rental is households in (formal) housing for
which rents are paid to a private landlord who is the legal owner. Social housing includes all
households in public, parastatal or NGO-owned or operated housing, including
government employee housing and housing owned or operated by co-operatives. Sub-tenancy refers to households who
are renting from another household who is renting the premises.
·
Squatter - without rent refers to households in
squatter housing, or housing which has no title to the land on which it
stands, and who pay no rents. Squatter
- with rent refers to households
in squatter housing who pay rent.
·
Other includes homeless, nomads, persons living
in institutions or hotels, and any other tenures.
·
Homeless refers to persons without shelter. These
persons usually carry their few possessions with them, sleeping in streets,
in doorways, on piers or in some open areas, such as park.
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Gender:
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Tenure type by sex of household is an essential part of the basic
information on the status of men and women in human settlements. In many
countries, female-headed households suffer from a lower and more precarious
tenure status than male-headed households, which leads to insecurity for
themselves and their dependents. Many studies have shown that, in developing
countries, female-headed households predominate in informal settlements.
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Collection
level:
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City and national levels
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Linkages:
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indicator 2 (evictions),
indicator 3 (housing price-to-income ratio), indicator 5 (mortgage and
non-mortgage)
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Indicator 2:
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Evictions
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Reporting chapter:
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SHELTER
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Habitat Agenda commitment:
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Provide security of tenure
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Significance:
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Whether is it legal or illegal,
eviction has generally negative social impacts on the concerned population.
This indicator measures the degree to which this practice is still in force.
Because eviction is usually irregular and intermittent, the value for this
indicator is an average over the last five-year period. In developed
countries the indicator will refer to evictions during large public works
projects but mostly to evictions for non-payment of rent, and will measure
affordability conditions and the availability of legal recourse by landlords.
In developing countries the major component of this indicator will be
squatter evictions. In many countries, Governments have chosen to allow
long-term squatter settlements to remain in place, improved infrastructure,
and secured land tenure thereby allowing the residents to invest more in
improving their housing. In other countries, however, eviction continues
unabated.
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Definition:
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Average annual number of men-headed
and women-headed households evicted from their dwellings during the past five
years.
Data have to be provided for 1993 and 1998, as well as for the
complete 1993-98 five-year period.
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Gender:
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Eviction is perhaps the most dramatic manifestation of the fight
for land and housing. Women-headed households, are more likely to be part of
disadvantaged groups and therefore to experience evictions. Women and children
suffer the most when such events occur.
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Collection
level:
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City and urban national levels
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Linkages:
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indicator 1 (tenure types),
indicator 3 (housing price-to-income ratio).
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Qualitative data 1:
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Housing rights
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Reporting chapter:
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SHELTER
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Habitat Agenda commitment:
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Promote the right to adequate
housing
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Significance:
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Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in 1948, the right to adequate housing has been recognized as an important
component of the right to an adequate standard of living. Part of the actions
that Governments are committed to providing, in the matter of housing, that
the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal
and effective protection against them. Also, Governments are committed to
providing legal security of tenure and equal access to land for all,
including women and those living in poverty (Habitat Agenda, paragraph 61).
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Definition:
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Yes/no answers should be
replied to the following questions:
1. Does the Constitution or national law promote the full and
progressive realisation of the right to adequate housing? (yes/no) Does it include
protections against eviction? (yes/no)
2. Are there impediments to
women owning land (considerable, some, none)? Are there impediments to
particular groups owning land (considerable, some, none)? Which particular
groups?
3. Are there impediments to women inheriting land and housing
(considerable, some, none)? Are there impediments to particular groups
inheriting land and housing (considerable, some, none)? Which particular
groups?
Impediments
include both legal or traditional barriers to inheritance, which affect a
significant proportion of the land area (e.g., in excess of 5%).
Discriminations which are faced by other particular groups can be on the
basis of race, color, language, religion or other.
4. Are there impediments to women taking mortgages in their own
name (considerable, some, none)? Are there impediments to particular groups
taking mortgages in their own name (considerable, some, none)? Which
particular groups?
Impediments include both legal or institutional
impediments, including requirements for guarantors, higher interest rates,
down payment or deposit requirements, or loan limits which are different from
those applying to men of similar incomes and wealth.
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Gender:
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One must note that while law often gives a number of rights to
women, traditional barriers impede them from benefiting. This list of questions
is proposed in order to identify the various kinds of impediments women face
in a given national context.
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Collection
level:
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National level
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Linkages:
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indicator 1 (tenure types), indicator 2 (evictions).
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Indicator 3:
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Housing price and rent-to-income ratios
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Reporting chapter:
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SHELTER
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Habitat Agenda commitment:
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Promote the right to adequate
housing
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Significance:
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In a
responsive and efficient housing market, the range of housing prices and
rents have to be such that they respond to all sections of the population and
reach the lowest segments. This indicator is based on the assumption that,
for households, access to adequate housing means that housing expenditures do
not take up an undue portion of their income. Housing price and rent to
income ratio provide a good measure of housing affordability at the city
level. They also convey the greatest amount of information on the overall
performance of housing markets.
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Definitions:
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ratio of the median free-market price of a dwelling unit and the
median annual household income and ratio of the median annual rent of a
dwelling unit and the median annual household income of renters.
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Methodology:
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Median housing price : Housing price is defined as the price at
which a house would sell if placed on the market for a reasonable length of
time by a seller who is not under pressure to sell. The median-priced house
in the urban area is that house which has 50% of the houses priced below it,
and 50% of the houses priced above it. The calculation of the price of the
median-priced house should, therefore include all housing, both new and old,
and both formal and informal. If, for example, the majority of the housing
stock is informal, and the informal housing stock is generally cheaper than
the formal housing stock, then the median priced house will probably be an
informal unit. For blocks of apartments or multiple-family dwellings which
are usually sold as a single building, the value of one dwelling unit should
be estimated as a pro rata share of the total sale price. This is
particularly relevant for countries in Africa where the majority of housing
is of this type.
Median rent: Rent should be contract rent or the
amount paid for the property alone and not for utilities such as electricity,
heating etc. If median rent data cannot be located, then an estimation
procedure has to be used, with ranges of rents estimated separately for
different categories such as public housing, controlled rents, one bedroom
and two bedroom furnished and unfurnished apartments, and single family
houses of different types. The median price will be part way up the price
ranges of the median dwelling types.
Median household income: Household income is defined as the gross
income from all sources, which include wages, salaries, incomes from
businesses or informal sector activities, investment income, and where
information is available, income in-kind such as consumption of agricultural
produce which might have been sold.
For the
calculation of the rent to income ratio, incomes should be median gross income of private and public
renter households. Where renter household income data do not exist,
median income of all households can be used.
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Gender:
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This indicator can address gender through disaggregation by sex
of the household head. The question will be: how much would cost a median house
for a female-headed household ? The result will use the same numerator than
in the calculation explained above but will have a different denominator,
being the median income of a female-headed household.
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Collection
level:
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City level
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Linkages:
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indicator 1 (tenure types),
indicator 4 (land price-to-income ratio), indicator 5 (mortgage and
non-mortgage).
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Indicator 4:
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Land price-to-income ratio
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Reporting chapter:
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SHELTER
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Habitat Agenda commitment:
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Provide equal access to land
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Significance:
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Land price is one major key to revealing land availability and
development in cities. A responsive urban environment should be able to have land
accessible and available at a reasonable range of prices in order to respond
to the demand of individual households and the private sector. The ratio of
the price of land to household income not only indicates if affordable land
is available to cater the needs of the different segments of the population.
It also shows if the local government is able to respond to the growing needs
by developing infrastructure in undeveloped parts of the city or providing
incentives for new developments.
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Definition:
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Ratios between the median price of 1 square metre of
highly-developed, developed and raw land and the median household income per
month.
·
Highly developed land refers to plots serviced with at least roads,
water and electricity and possibly drainage and sewerage.
·
Developed land refers to plots serviced with roads only.
·
Raw land refers to unserviced plots with or without
planning permission.
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Methodology:
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The median price of 1 m2 of land can be calculated using the following
options:
1. Where
the informal sector is small and data are reliable, median house price can be
determined directly from published (formal) sales figures or from recent
surveys.
2. If no
direct data are available, then prices need to be estimated for each type of
land, using the method suggested for the estimation of the housing price.
3. The
ultimate solution is to use averages prices when median prices are not
available.
Please
indicate in the 'Note' page which method was used for this indicator.
The
median household income per month
refers to the gross income from all sources, which include wages, salaries,
incomes from businesses or informal sector activities, investment income, and
where information is available, income in-kind such as consumption of
agricultural produce which might have been sold.
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Gender:
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This indicator can address gender through disaggregation by sex
of the household head. The question will be: how much would cost a piece of
land for a female-headed household ? The result will use the same numerator
than in the calculation explained above but will have a different
denominator, being the median income of a female-headed household.
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Collection
level:
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City level
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Linkages:
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indicator 1 (tenure types),
indicator 3 (housing price-to-income ratio).
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Indicator 5:
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Mortgage and non-mortgage
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Reporting chapter:
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SHELTER
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Habitat Agenda commitment:
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Promote equal access to credit
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Significance:
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Because housing is an expensive
purchase beyond the reach of the majority of households, the availability of
mortgage facilities is a necessary part of ensuring access to
owner-occupancy, and where such credit is not adequately available to
particular groups, housing ownership will be severely restricted. In
countries which have no mortgage available, households can either go for
commercial loans, which are generally too expensive for the majority of the
population, or, when available, can obtain other loans from the non-formal
financial sector, generally in the form of micro-credits.
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Definition:
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Percentage of dwellings
purchased during the last past year that are covered by mortgage and percentage
of dwellings that are covered by non-mortgage loans.
Mortgage loans refer specifically to loans from the
formal financial sector to households, with mortgage (i.e. conveyance of
property by debtor to creditor as security for debt incurred by the purchase
of property).
Non-mortgage loans refer to all other types of loans from the
formal or informal financial sector to households conveyed without mortgage
for purchasing houses.
Dwellings
purchased also include houses which
are build by individuals, with or without loans. The loans, in these
particular cases, can be to cover the price of the plot and/or for the labour
and/or for construction materials.
|
|
Methodology:
|
If the percentage
is not available, one might simply get the annual number of mortgage loans as
well and the total annual number of non-mortgage loans attributed to
households.
Mortgage
loans include those loans which originate from the formal financial intermediary
and which have, as final recipient, a household or individual which uses it
for housing occupancy whether it is secured by the property or not. They
should include loans to cooperatives which are used for housing for
cooperative members and block loans to developers which are passed on to
purchasers.
Non-mortgage
loans include those with non-financial intermediaries such as employers who
provide credit for housing, loans provided by non-formal financial
intermediaries through a NGO project, etc.
Information
on mortgage loans might be easier to collect than non-mortgage loans.
Information on the number of dwelling purchased during the last year with
mortgage can be obtained from the major banks and housing finance
institutions, and if it exists, the national housing bank.
|
|
Gender:
|
This indicator can address gender through disaggregation by sex
of the household head. The question will be: What is the percentage of
dwellings purchased by women-headed households during the last past year that
are covered by mortgage and percentage of dwellings that are covered by
non-mortgage loans. This information might be difficult to obtain. However,
if compared to the total percentage of households which have access to
mortgage, it will provide a direct insight on the level of access of women to
mortgage and non-mortgage vis-à-vis the men.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 1 (tenure types),
indicator 3 (housing price-to-income ratio), indicator 4 (land
price-to-income ratio).
|
|
Indicator 6:
|
Access to water
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SHELTER
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote access to basic
services
|
|
Significance:
|
Water is one of the great necessities of
human life, which is taken for granted in the developed world. A supply of
clean water is absolutely necessary for life and health, yet 1.4 billion
people lack access to adequate water supply or can only obtain it at high
prices. In many cities, Households in informal settlements are rarely
connected to the network and can only rely on water from vendors at up to 200
times the tap price. Improving access to safe water implies less burden on
people, mostly women, to collect water from available sources. It also means
reducing the global burden of water-related diseases and the improvement of
quality of life.
|
|
Definition:
|
Percentage of households with
access to water.
Access is defined as having water
located within 200 meters of the dwelling. It refers to housing units where
the piped water is available within the unit and to those where it is not
available to occupants within their housing unit, but is accessible within
the range of 200 metres, assuming that access to piped water within that
distance allows occupants to provide water for household needs without being
subjected to extreme effort.
|
|
Methodology:
|
This definition is the one used
by the United Nations Statistics Division. This information should be
collected through the census or households surveys. Other sources might be
specific surveys carried out for urban infrastructure studies and basic
services projects.
|
|
Gender:
|
Lack of adequate infrastructure
services results in a critical equity problem, in that many of the resulting
costs impact most heavily the urban poor and women, implies low productivity,
reduced income and poorer quality of life. This indicator already address
gender since, when water is not available, it is usually women and girls who
will carry the daily burden of fetching water. However, results can be
specified through disaggregation by sex of the household head. The question
will be: What is the percentage of men and women-headed households which have
access to water ?
When a large proportion of households do not have access to
water, it might be useful to obtain the average time spent in fetching water,
which is a good complementary indicator. It is defined as the average daily
time in hours spent by households fetching water. Time spent fetching water
measures the burden women have to face during their daytime and the
constraints limiting their productive work. Time may vary during the year
depending on the availability of water at the different sources.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City and urban national levels
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 8 (under-five mortality),
indicator 10 (poor households), indicator 13 (water consumption), indicator
14 (price of water).
|
|
Indicator 7:
|
Households connections
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SHELTER
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote access to basic services
|
|
Significance:
|
The quality
and reliability of local services are taken for granted in highly
industrialized countries, but limited access to, or poor quality of,
infrastructure services in developing countries can be major impediments to
business productivity, and major sources of frustration to the population.
The poorest households in developing countries generally cannot afford
household connections of telephone and electricity, and often only have
access to primitive or communal water supply and sewage and solid waste
disposal systems. As well as reducing the quality of life in settlements, the
absence of connection to basic services makes communities living in informal
settlements particularly vulnerable to disease and epidemics.
|
|
Definition:
|
Percentage of households which, within their housing unit, are
connected to:
a) piped water; b) sewerage; c)
electricity; and d) telephone.
|
|
Methodology:
|
This information is usually collected
through the census or households surveys, or directly from the utility
providers. Other sources might be specific surveys carried out for urban
infrastructure studies and urban development projects. In developing cities
where informal settlements occupy a relatively important part of the city, it
will be useful to get the results for households living in these particular
settlements. Household connection will probably greatly differ from other
settlements and results might suggest that specific policies should be
undertaken in informal areas.
|
|
Gender:
|
This indicator can address gender through disaggregation by sex
of the household head. The question will be: What is the percentage of men
and women-headed households which have access to basic services ?
In situations where there is no water in the house, it is
normally women and girls who have to provide it. Providing readily available
clean water reduces the burden for women and girls, and increases the time women
have for productive work. It is a factor of human resource productivity. This
also applies to solid waste collection and electricity. Indicators of access
to infrastructure in general already measure the level of services which have
an impact on women’s quality of life.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City and urban national levels
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 6 (access to water),
indicator 13 (water consumption), indicator 14 (price of water).
|
|
Indicator 8:
|
Under-five mortality
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND
ERADICATION OF POVERTY
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Provide equal opportunities for
a safe and healthy life
|
|
Significance:
|
Under-five mortality is a powerful indicator of quality of life
in cities. High child mortality is directly correlated to low environmental
indicators such as the level of wastewater treatment and sewerage and
sanitation facilities.
|
|
Definition:
|
Percentage of female children and male children who die before
reaching their fifth birthday.
Child
mortality = number of death for children below five
year old during the year
average number of live birth
during the last five years
|
|
Methodology:
|
Mistakes are common for this indicator.
Child mortality is different from infant mortality which account for
mortality of under-one year old infants. Information for this indicator is
generally extracted from Census data or originates from the registry offices.
|
|
Gender:
|
Many deaths are the result of malnutrition, poor life conditions,
i.e. poor shelter, polluted water and inadequate sanitation. Child mortality
may be due to other factors and may affect boys and girls differently.
|
|
Collection level:
|
City and national levels
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 6 (access to water), indicator 10 (poor households),
indicator 16 (wastewater treated), indicator 17 (solid waste disposal),
indicator 15 (air pollution).
|
|
Indicator 9:
|
Crime rates
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND
ERADICATION OF POVERTY
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Provide equal opportunities for
a safe and healthy life
|
|
Significance:
|
Crime rates provide useful information on the level of security
in a city. However, the number of reported murders, rapes and thefts too
often only represents the apparent crime. According to recent research on the
subject, in many countries, less than 50% of the total crimes are reported to
the police and therefore, in official statistics. Crime rates should be taken
with caution and reporting should mention the possible gaps between the
official figures and the reality. Some countries might complement their crime
rate assessment by providing the number of automobile thefts, drug-related
crimes, bribery and corruption cases, fraud, etc. Experience in several
countries show that victimisation surveys provide an insight on the reality
of crimes and help to improve the statistics.
|
|
Definition:
|
Number of reported crimes (male
and female victims) annually per 1000 population, for:
(a) homicides; (b) rapes; (c) thefts.
Crimes refer to the number of penal code offences or their
equivalent, i.e. various special law offences brought to the attention of the
police or other law enforcement agencies and recorded by one of those
agencies.
Homicide includes intentional and
non-intentional homicide. Intentional homicide refers to death deliberately
inflicted on a person by another person, including infanticide.
Non-intentional homicide refers to death non-deliberately inflicted on a
person by another person. This includes manslaughter but excludes traffic
accidents that result in the death of a person.
Rape refers to sexual intercourse
without valid consent.
Theft refers to the removal of
property without the property owner’s consent. Theft excludes burglary,
housebreaking as well as the theft of a motor vehicle.
|
|
Methodology:
|
The definitions are the one used by the United Nations Statistics
Division.
For thefts, some criminal and penal codes distinguish between
grand and petty theft, depending of the value of goods and properties taken
from their rightful owner. In that case, please provide grand and petty theft
in the final result and specify in the attached notes the number of grand and
petty thefts. Some city data might not distinguish between thefts and
burglary. They might include burglary in the final theft figure. However,
they should specify in the notes that no separate data are available and
provide estimates on the proportion of burglary in the total number. Burglary
refers to unlawful entry into someone else’s premises with the intention to
commit a crime.
|
|
Gender:
|
Women and men are differently affected by crimes. Therefore,
indicators should be disaggregated by sex of the victims. Rape, as a major
crime affecting women, is important in many societies. But data on rapes may
be analyzed with caution, many of them being unreported by the victims
because of social pressure. Again, victimisation surveys can provide a better
insight of the real situation and help to improve statistics on the issue.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City and national levels.
|
|
Linkages:
|
Indicator 8 (child mortality), indicator 10 (poor households),
indicator 22 (unemployment).
|
|
Qualitative
data 2:
|
Urban violence
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ERADICATION OF POVERTY
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Provide equal opportunities for a safe and healthy life
|
|
Significance:
|
Since crime rates provide only
a partial picture of the level of urban violence, these qualitative data provide
complementary information at the city level. Whether or not the city has
areas considered as dangerous or inaccessible to the police and children
experience violence at school are good indication of the level of urban
violence. Major policies and programme against crimes and violence include
official policy against domestic violence, crime and weapon control
prevention policy and victim of violence assistance programmes.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers should be replied to the following questions:
Existence of:
1. areas considered as inaccessible or dangerous to the police
(yes/no);
2. violence at school, among children (none, some, a lot);
3. official policy against domestic violence (yes/no);
4. crime prevention policy
(yes/no);
5. weapons control policy (yes/no);
6. assistance programme(s) for victims of violence (yes/no).
|
|
Methodology:
|
The existence of traditional
national and local police does not constitute crime prevention policy in itself.
A crime prevention policy should include specific mechanisms and programmes
such as, among others: community justice; community-policing approach;
partnership between police, local authorities, NGOs and CBOs, etc.
Weapons control policy should
include weapons licensing policy, fight against illicit weapons (within the
country, including control at borders), etc.
Assistance programmes for
victims of violence are usually developed by local authorities or
non-governmental organisation in order to assist men and women victims of
violence.
|
|
Gender:
|
This indicator addresses gender
by checking whether programme to victims of violence are already in place to
assist women and men and whether an official policy has been implemented to
fight against domestic violence which primarily affects women and children.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City and
national levels
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 9 (crime rates),
indicator 10 (poor households), indicator 22 (unemployment).
|
|
Indicator
10:
|
Poor households
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ERADICATION OF POVERTY
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote social integration and
support disadvantaged groups
|
|
Significance:
|
The right to development and
the right to a life free from poverty are basic human rights. The UN Charter,
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the World Summit on Social
Development and many other multilateral declarations and conferences have recognized
and reconfirmed economic, social, political, civil, and cultural rights with
the goal of eradicating poverty and its consequences. Among these rights are an adequate
standard of living, food, housing, education, health, work, social security
and a share in the benefits of social progress.
The number of poor, measured through the number of households
below the poverty line, provides a traditional measure of the general level
of poverty. It indicates the relative number of people in poverty which constitute
the major part of disadvantaged groups. Progress in this area is achieved
through general socioeconomic development, alleviation and eradication
programmes and special support measures to disadvantaged groups. Reduced
poverty is also a guarantee to improved social integration and inclusion.
Other indicators of poverty are proxy-measures which indicates the level of
access to shelter (indicator 2), land (indicator 3), credit (indicator 4),
basic services (indicator 5). Population groups which are deprived from a
number of basic necessities usually fall under the poor and disadvantaged
groups.
|
|
Definition:
|
percentage of women and men-headed households situated below the
poverty line (national or locally-defined poverty line).
|
|
Methodology:
|
Traditionally, poverty has been
defined in terms of shortfalls of consumption or income. Income poverty lines
are set against the cost of a basic diet for a group and/or the combination
of dietary needs and a few non-food essential items.
The poverty line should be an ‘absolute’ poverty line, taken as
the income necessary to afford a minimum nutritionally adequate diet plus
essential non-food requirements, for a household of a given size. The common
method for setting the poverty line proceeds by fixing a food intake in
calories, and then finding the consumption expenditure or income level at
which a person typically attains that food intake, then applying a multiplier
to account for non-food items.
|
|
Gender:
|
Urban households headed by women are generally poorer than those
headed by men. A gender perspective is necessary for understanding the
characteristics and processes of urban poverty, and for effectively
addressing poverty reduction policies. Poverty of female-headed households
can be measured using the poverty-line. It can also be measured through
indicators of access to employment, resources, housing and services
(indicators 1, 5, 6, 7, 20, 22).
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City and
national levels
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 8 (under-five
mortality), indicator 6 (access to water), indicator 9 (crime rates),
indicator 22 (unemployment), indicator 21 (informal employment).
|
|
Indicator
11:
|
Female-male gaps
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ERADICATION OF POVERTY
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote gender equality in
human settlements development
|
|
Significance:
|
Female-male gaps in major socioeconomic
issues at the city level are essential for measuring the level of gender
equality in human settlements. By measuring the difference in major human
development rates by sex in several cities, countries will be able to assess
if gender equality has been achieved in urban areas and what progress remains
to be made.
|
|
Definition:
|
Female-male gaps in
education (school enrollment rates by sex, adult literacy rates by sex), health
(under-five mortality rate, life expectancy by sex), employment (unemployment
by sex) and formal participation in decision-making (number and nominated
councillors by sex at the local level).
·
Female-male gap in education (school): defined as the
percentage difference in the gross
primary, secondary and tertiary enrolment ratios for female and male students
(defined as the number of students, by sex, enrolled in a level of education
whether or not they belong in the relevant age group for that level, as a
percentage of the population in the relevant group for that level) (male less female gross enrollments).
·
Female-male gap in education (literacy): defined as the
percentage difference in male and female adult literacy rates (defined as the percentage of people aged 15
and above who can, with understanding, both read and write a short, simple
statement on their everyday life) (male less female literacy rates).
·
Female-male
gap in health (child mortality): defined
as the percentage difference between the male child mortality rate and the
female child mortality rate (male less
female child mortality rates, using
results of indicator 8).
·
Female-male
gap in health (life expectancy): defined as the
difference in life expectancy, in number of years, between men and women (male less female life expectancy at
birth). Life expectancy at birth is defined as the number of years a
newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of
birth were to stay the same throughout the child’s life .
·
Female-male
gap in employment: defined as the
percentage difference between the male unemployment rate and the female
unemployment rate (male less female,
using results of indicator 22).
·
Female-male
gap in formal participation: defined as
the difference between female and male ratios of the number of elected and of
nominated local government representatives, per 10,000 metropolitan
population (female less male ratios).
|
|
Methodology:
|
These data are generally
obtained from ministries, education and health authorities at the national
level, which may maintain data by city (at least for the main cities). Other
sources of information might be the municipalities themselves.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
City level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 8 (under-five
mortality), indicator 22 (unemployment), indicator 21 (informal employment).
|
|
Indicator
12:
|
Urban population growth
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote geographically-balanced settlement structures
|
|
Significance:
|
Bringing the development of the urban area into harmony with its
environment and the overall system of settlements is one of the basic tasks
to be undertaken in order to achieve the general goal of sustainable human
settlements in an urbanizing world. Geographically-balanced structures form
part of this goal, achieved through monitoring the growth of urban
populations. Population growth in urban areas needs to be monitored and
harmonized so that it does not create unmanageable densities and population
concentrations. High population growth without accompanying infrastructure
development, adequate supply of basic services, accessible and affordable
land and shelter, sufficient employment and economic opportunities is
conducive to urban disorders and environmental degradation.
|
|
Definition:
|
Average annual growth rate of population in the urban
agglomeration or in national urban areas.
|
|
Methodology:
|
The growth rate should be
calculated for the last five years of reference (1993-1998). Total mid-year
population figures for the 1993 and 1998 of reference should be indicated.
For countries that lack recent census-based population data, population
figures should be estimated by national statistical offices. If other
reference periods are used, it should be indicated in the report.
Total population is based on the de facto definition of population,
which counts all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship.
Refugees not permanently settled in the country of asylum are generally
considered to be part of the population of their country of origin.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 3 (housing
price-to-income ratio), indicator 4 (land price-to-income ratio), indicator 6
(access to water), indicator 7 (household connections).
|
|
Indicator
13:
|
Water consumption
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Manage supply and demand for water in an effective manner
|
|
Significance:
|
Consumption of water per person depends on the availability and
price of water, the climate, and the uses to which water is customarily put
by individuals (drinking, bathing, washing, gardening). In many cities, potable water supply is not constant and household
rely on a few hours to tap the available water during the day. Water
consumption is much higher in cities of higher income countries, as with most
other forms of consumption. Typically
people in cities of developed
countries use 272 litres per day while the average in Africa is 53 litres per
day, around a quarter. North American cities use, on average, double the
amount of water per person, that Western European cities use, and seven times
that of African cities.
|
|
Definition:
|
average consumption of water in liters per day per person, for
all domestic uses (excludes industrial).
|
|
Methodology:
|
This information is usually
available from the main water supply companies, which maintain records on
water supplied, delivered, consumed and ultimately paid by the end-users for
industrial, commercial and domestic purpose. Only water consumed for domestic
purpose will be taken into account. A frequent mistake for this indicator is
to account for all types of use, by dividing the total water supplied by the
total population.
Also, before reaching the users, a part of the water supplied might
be lost through leakages or illegal tapping. In cities with old and
deteriorating water reticulation systems, a substantial proportion of piped
water may be lost through cracks and flaws in pipes - for example up to 30%
of water is lost in this way in some countries of Eastern Europe. It is
therefore important to take this into account into the final consumption and
if possible, not to take the actual supply as the final consumption figures.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 6 (access to water),
indicator 7 (household connections), indicator 13 (price of water), indicator
16 (wastewater treated), qualitative data 4 (local environmental plans).
|
|
Indicator
14:
|
Price of water
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Manage supply and demand for water in an effective manner
|
|
Significance:
|
In many cities, households living in informal
settlements are not connected to the network and can only rely on water from
vendors at up to 200 times the tap price. The price of water may rise to
very high levels in some areas at some times, and can take a significant
proportion of the household budget. If more than 50% of households have piped
water, then this will be the user-pays marginal cost of water. How much an average household is spending in water varies tremendously
from city to city.
|
|
Definition:
|
median price paid per 1000 liters of water in US dollars, at the
time of year when water is most expensive.
|
|
Methodology:
|
This measures the cost of water
at times when it is most scarce. It should be provided for all types of
settlements at the city level, as well as in informal settlements, when
relevant.
The median price of water should be
estimated like the median house price (indicator 3). The median price is the
one for which 50% of the water is priced below it, and 50% of the water
priced above it. The estimation of the median price of water should,
therefore include water sold in all types and areas. If, for example, the
majority of water in sold by vendors, then, the median price will be the
vendors’ price. If it is the municipal corporation water, then the
corporation price will be the median price.
|
|
Gender:
|
The price of water can have major implications in the households’
budgets. In developing countries, since women-headed households constitute
the majority in informal settlements, women will be the first to be affected
by the high-level prices of water vendors.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 6 (access to water),
indicator 7 (household connections), indicator 10 (poor households),
indicator 13 (water consumption), qualitative data 4 (local environmental
plans).
|
|
Indicator
15:
|
Air pollution
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
|
|
Significance:
|
The production and consumption
of energy influences most aspects of urban life. Growing urban populations
and levels of industrialization inevitably lead to greater energy demand,
which is usually reflected in increasing pollutant emissions. Air pollution is
directly linked to energy consumption, environmental policy, city density,
transport by motor vehicles, concentration of industries, etc. The combustion
of wood and of fossil fuels for domestic heating, for power generation, in
motor vehicles and in industrial processes and the disposal of solid wastes
by incineration, are generally the principal sources of air pollutant
emissions to the atmosphere in urban areas. The most common or damaging air
pollutants in urban environments include sulphur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3)
and lead (Pb).
|
|
Definition:
|
number of days per annum that WHO standards are exceeded, and
average annual measured concentrations for the following:
(a) sulphur dioxide (SO2);
(b) ozone (O3);
(c) carbon monoxide (CO);
(d) nitrogen dioxide (NO2);
(e)
lead
(Pb).
|
|
Methodology:
|
Pollution is generally measured
as the number of days exceeding WHO standards annually (the preferred
indicator), or as average annual concentrations. WHO air quality guidelines (below) are health- or
environment-based levels but not standards per se. Air quality standards are
air quality guidelines promulgated by governments for which additional
factors may be considered such as prevailing exposure levels, natural
background contamination, environmental conditions such as temperature and
humidity extremes, altitude, and socio-economic factors. Particulate matters
which are traditionally classified as part of the harmful air pollutants have
been excluded from the list since no clear guidelines have been formulated so
far.
|
|
|
WHO Air quality guidelines:
|
|
|
|
|
Pollutant
|
Averaging time
|
WHO guidelines values
|
|
|
sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|
24 hours
|
125 mg / m3
|
|
|
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|
1 year
1 hour
|
40 mg / m3
200 mg / m3
|
|
|
ozone (O3)
|
8 hours
|
120 mg / m3
|
|
|
carbon monoxide (CO)
|
8 hours
|
10 mg / m3
|
|
|
lead (Pb)
|
1 year
|
0.5 mg / m3
|
|
|
If measuring equipment is in place,
then daily measurements should be available. However if no permanent stations
are installed but only occasional readings are taken with portable equipment,
then only average annual concentrations will be available. Where several
measuring stations are in place, readings should be the average of all
stations. Measurement modes, as well as number and location of stations
should be briefly described in the notes attached to the final results.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 8 (under-five
mortality), urban population growth (indicator 12), transport modes
(indicator 19), qualitative data 4 (local environmental plans).
|
|
Indicator
16:
|
Wastewater treated
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
|
|
Significance:
|
It has been proved that improvement of
water treatment reduces the incidence of a variety of water-borne diseases. A reliable wastewater treatment
system is a major indicator of the level of local development and of
community health. Water pollution from human wastes is less of a problem in
countries that can afford to treat sewage and wastewater, and water pollution
can be minimized with adequate investment in treatment systems. The
percentage of wastewater treated is a key indicator of water quality
management.
|
|
Definition:
|
percentage of all wastewater undergoing some form of treatment.
|
|
Methodology:
|
All forms of treatment include
treatment to permit water release into water resources of different levels of
environmental sensitivity. They are:
·
Primary treatment which screen and
sediment sewage to remove grosser debris.
·
Secondary treatment which reduce
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) to acceptable levels by
microbial oxidation using activated sludge or a trickle filter.
·
Tertiary treatment which reduce BOD
still further through microstraining or filtering, the microbial removal of
phosphates and nitrates, and disinfection using chlorine or ozone.
This information is usually known by municipal authorities and is
available from the main water supply and treatment companies.
|
|
Gender:
|
Knowing the level of water treatment is an important information
which addresses gender. Women are the primary users of domestic water for
cooking, bathing children, etc. The lack of clean water will imply additional
domestic treatment in order to avoid potential contamination in the
household, in particular through drinking water and food. They will have to
make sure that their new-born and young children will have their water safe,
which will require an extra burden on them, as well as a cause of daily
worry.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 8 (under-five
mortality), indicator 6 (access to water), qualitative data 4 (local
environmental plans).
|
|
Indicator
17:
|
Solid waste disposal
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Reduce urban pollution
|
|
Significance:
|
Many cities generate more solid
waste than they can collect or dispose of. Even when municipal budgets are
adequate for collection, the safe disposal of collected wastes often remains
a problem. Dumping and uncollected landfills are sometimes the main disposal
methods in many developing countries; sanitary landfills are the norm in only
a handful of cities. Inadequate collection and unmanaged disposal present a
number of problems for human health and productivity. Uncollected refuse
dumped in public areas or in waterways contributes to the spread of disease.
|
|
Definition:
|
percentage of solid waste:
(a)
disposed to sanitary landfill;
(b)
incinerated;
(c)
disposed to open dump;
(d)
recycled;
(e)
burned openly;
(f)
other.
|
|
Methodology:
|
This information should be available from the municipal bodies,
public services and major private contractors dealing with solid waste
collection and disposal. When data are not available, provide at least an
estimate of the proportion of waste to sanitary landfill and the proportion
disposed to open dump.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 8 (under-five
mortality), qualitative data 4 (local environmental plans).
|
|
Qualitative
data 3:
|
Disaster prevention and
mitigation instruments
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Prevent disasters and rebuild settlements
|
|
Significance:
|
With the increasing population
living in urban areas, the impact of natural or human-made disasters on
people and human settlements is becoming greater. These disasters require
specific prevention, preparedness and mitigation instruments which often do
not exist in disaster-prone areas because of economic and technical reasons.
Major instruments are the existence and application of appropriate building codes, which prevent and mitigate
impacts of disasters, and hazard mapping, which inform the policy-makers,
population and professional of disasters-prone areas. The existence of
disaster insurance is a good indication that codes will be applied.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers should be replied to the following questions:
In the country and at the city level, are there:
(a)
building codes (yes/no) ?
(b)
hazard mapping (yes/no) ?
(c)
natural disaster insurance for public and private buildings
(yes/no) ?
(and is disaster insurance compulsory for public
building (yes/no) ?)
|
|
Methodology:
|
·
Building codes includes anti-cyclonic
and anti-seismic building standards. They
should be based on hazard and vulnerability assessment.
·
Hazard mapping is a simple and
effective way of ensuring that hazard are recorded and updated on a regular
basis. The maps shall cover the entire city and its boundaries, be available
to the public and as recent as possible (less than five years old).
·
Insurances against natural disasters
for public and private buildings do not always exist. When they exist, they
are not always compulsory for public or private building. When insurances are
compulsory, building codes are more likely to be applied for insurance
payment purpose in case of natural disaster.
|
|
Gender:
|
The involvement of both men and women in disaster planning and
management should be encouraged. In particular, they should be involved in preparedness
planning in such areas as water and food storage, fuel and first aid and in
disaster prevention through activities that build a culture of safety.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 12 (urban population
growth).
|
|
Indicator
18:
|
Travel time
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote effective and environmentally sound transportation system
|
|
Significance:
|
Travel time is one of the key performance measures of
transportation systems. Long transport time to work is an obvious sign of
urban dysfunction, associated with severe traffic congestion, uncontrolled
mixes of traffic types, poorly operating public transport networks, lack of
adequate local traffic management, accidents and general dissatisfaction of
the population who daily commute to their workplace. Reducing travel time has
become a real challenge for transport planners of fast growing megacities, where
commuters spend sometimes more than one hour in average to reach their
workplace.
|
|
Definition:
|
Average time in minutes for a one-way work trip. This is an
average over all modes of transport.
|
|
Methodology:
|
This is an average over all modes. It may be necessary to
estimate average times for each mode of transport and then make use of
indicator 19 (transport modes) to obtain an overall weighted average. Train
and bus times should include average walking and waiting times and car times
should include parking or walking to the workplace.
|
|
Gender:
|
Mobility is an essential part of daily life
and it is the main means of access to city services and social opportunities.
Mobility conditions access to employment as well as social integration, and
it can become a factor for social discrimination and even exclusion. Women
are less mobile: they are less likely than men to have a personal vehicle,
public transport networks remain generally inadequate to respond to all men
and women and insecurity prevail in certain areas. Women spend generally more
time in travel, and use cheaper and slower modes of transportation. It will
be useful to obtain the travel time disaggregated by sex. The question will
be: how much time do men and women spend for an average one-way trip to work
?
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 19 (transport modes).
|
|
Indicator
19:
|
Transport modes
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote effective and environmentally sound transportation system
|
|
Significance:
|
Transport can play a determining role in the economy and quality
of life of cities. Effective and environmentally friendly transportation
systems are revealed through measures of the different travel modes used for
work trips. Transportation system should be adequately balanced for the
several uses required. While transport should be as efficient as possible to
ensure the movement of goods and people, as a major consumer of non-renewable
energy and a major contributor to pollution, congestion and accidents, an
adequate mix of modes is necessary to ensure its sustainability and reduced
impacts on the environment. While private motorized transport (cars,
motorcycles) has become the major mode in cities at the end of this century,
public transport and non-motorized modes of transport should be encouraged,
since they are generally affordable, efficient and energy-saving.
|
|
Definition:
|
percentage of work trips undertaken by:
(a)
private car;
(b)
train, tram;
(c)
bus or minibus;
(d)
motorcycle;
(e)
bicycle;
(f)
foot;
(g)
other modes.
|
|
Methodology:
|
When several modes of transport are used for
a given trip, the following hierarchy should be employed to determine the
principal mode: (1) train; (2) tram or ferry; (3) bus or minibus; (4) car;
(5) taxi or motorcycle; (6) bicycle or other non-motorised modes.
Data on transport modes are usually obtained
through specific transport surveys. These data may be difficult to obtain,
especially disaggregated data. If data cannot be provided for the level of
detail above, please provide data on : private motorised; train and tram; bus
and minibus; non-motorised.
If not available, this data should be
integrated in future transport surveys.
|
|
Gender:
|
As mentioned in indicator 18, women are
generally less mobile than men and are less likely to have a personal vehicle.
Public transport networks remain generally inadequate to respond to all men
and women and insecurity prevails in certain areas. Studies show that, in
many cities, women are more likely to use non-motorised modes, especially
walking. It will be useful to obtain percentage of transport modes used
disaggregated by sex.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 17 (travel time), indicator 15 (air pollution).
|
|
Qualitative
data 4:
|
Local environmental plans
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Support mechanisms to prepare and implement local environmental
plans and local Agenda 21 initiatives
|
|
Significance:
|
Sustainable human settlements
depend on the creation of a better environment, which will improve the living
conditions of people. To achieve this, Governments should support mechanisms
for consultation and partnership among interested parties, to prepare and
implement local environmental plans and local Agenda 21 initiatives, as well
as specific cross-sectoral environmental health programmes.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers and numbers should be provided for the following
questions:
Country-level:
1. How many cities have established long-term
strategic planning initiatives for sustainable development, involving key
partners? (number)
2. Is
this process institutionalized at the national level and/or has there been
any legislative change to support cities to engage in sustainable development
planning processes? (yes/no)
City-level:
3.
Has the city
established a long-term strategic planning initiative for sustainable
development, involving key partners? (yes/no)
4. Is the city implementing local environmental action plans
involving key partners? (yes/no)
|
|
Gender:
|
When it comes to environmental planning at the national and local
level, it is important to involve key partners, men and women in all the
stages of decision-making. Both men and women should be involved on
prioritisation, consensus, action plans and institutionalisation. Gender in
participatory decision-making can be measured through the four key
participatory-decision making developed by UNCHS (Habitat) and proposed as a
complementary tool for the Istanbul +5 assessment.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
all other indicators of chapter 3 (environmental management).
|
|
Indicator
20:
|
Informal employment
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Strengthen small and micro-enterprises, particularly those
developed by women
|
|
Significance:
|
The increasing
role of the informal sector in a number of economies is a consequence of
growth in the labour force without a matching response in the level of formal
employment opportunities. The informal sector may generate substantial
activity and may constitute a basis for the development of urban economies if
adequate policies are in place to enable the sector to perform and expand
productively. The informal sector has played an increasing role in the
expansion of production in rapidly growing cities in developing countries.
The informal sector has great freedom of action, being by definition free of
government interference, and will tend to deliver labour resources to
productive areas of the economy. The increasing importance of the informal
sector would suggest institutional changes for more flexible fiscal policies,
better financial credit arrangements for small units of production, and
legislation providing limited rights for employees in the sector.
|
|
Definition:
|
percentage of the employed population, men and women, whose
activity is part of the informal sector.
|
|
Methodology:
|
As per the currently definition used by the International Labour
Office, "The informal sector consists of persons engaged in the production
of goods or services with the primary objective of generating employment and
incomes to the persons concerned. These units typically operate at a low
level of organisation, with little or no division between labour and capital
as factors of production and on a small scale. Labour relations - where they
exist - are based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social
relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees".
The informal sector includes, first, all unregistered commercial
enterprises, and second, all non-commercial enterprises that have no formal
structure in terms of organization and operation.
The most
common sources are labour force surveys and special informal sector surveys,
based on a mixed household and enterprise survey approach or an economic
census survey approach. Other sources include multi-purpose household
surveys, household income and expenditure surveys, survey of household
economic activities or household industries, small and micro-enterprise
surveys, and official estimates prepared by the cities and countries
themselves. In developing countries, where a major part of labour market
activities are undeclared or informal, data on the size of the informal
sector should be included in the National Accounts to give a full picture of
economic activity.
|
|
Gender:
|
In developing countries, evidence suggests that only a few women
have access to formal employment and that most of them are vitally dependent
on the informal economy for their own and their family’s survival. When male
unemployment increases and real household income and consumption decline,
women’s individual and collective
coping mechanisms in the informal sector have become crucial to the survival
of poor urban households.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 10 (poor households),
indicator 12 (urban population growth), indicator 21 (city product).
|
|
Qualitative
data 5:
|
Public-private partnerships
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Encourage
public-private sector partnership and stimulate productive employment
opportunities.
|
|
Significance:
|
To establish an effective
financial base for urban development, Governments should encourage the
formation of new public-private sector partnerships for institutions that are
privately owned and managed, but public in their function and purpose
(Habitat Agenda, paragraph 158). Public-private partnerships allow a greater
flexibility in the management and guarantee a higher level of transparency,
efficiency and accountability of their operations. They also allow higher
cost-recovery of services.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers should be replied to the following questions:
1.
Have some major public enterprises
involving the delivery of services in cities established partnerships with
private firms during the last five years at the country level? (yes/no)
at the city
level ? (yes/no)
2.
If yes, how many at the country level
(number) ?
at the city
level (number) ?
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 22 (unemployment), qualitative
data 4 (transparency and accountability), indicator 24 (local government
resources and expenditures).
|
|
Indicator
21:
|
City product
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Encourage public-private sector partnership and stimulate
productive employment opportunities
|
|
Significance:
|
Cities have traditionally
served as economic centers and have become primary providers of services. They
are engines of economic growth and development. Also, cities currently
generate more than half of national economic activities worldwide (Habitat
Agenda, paragraph 155). Urban productivity, measured through the city
product, is an important indicator providing a strong measure of the level of
economic development of the city vis-à-vis
the national level, and informing about the level of investment, the
efficiency of public and private enterprises and the generation of productive
employment. The city product is essentially the gross national product (GNP)
of the city, an estimate of the city level economic output.
|
|
Definition:
|
total product of the city as defined in national accounts
procedures.
It may either be taken as the total income or value-added (wages
plus business surplus plus taxes plus imports), or the total final
demand (consumption plus investment
plus exports).
|
|
Methodology:
|
The City Product is calculated using two
methods.
Method A consists in taking the national
product in each industry sector (SITC standard industry classification) and
then multiplying it by differential wage rates at the city level, for each
industry sector. This method is used when employment by industry sector is
known.
Method B consists in using the city
household income figures and by multiplying by the ratio of GNP to total
households income at the national level. This method assumes that the ratio
of the GNP to the household income is the same at the city and the national
level. So far, this method has been used in most of the cases.
Method A:
The Gross National Product (GNP) by
industry sector is contained in National Accounts. These figures should be
updated to 1996 values using the USD price index in the Appendix. The
classification used here is an abbreviated form of the SITC standard industry
classification, which is used for standard national accounting.
The following table should be filled out for each industry
sector:
|
|
Sector
|
National product (US$m)
(A)
|
National
employment
(B)
|
City
employment
(C)
|
Wage ratio
(D)
|
City Product
(US$m)
(E)
|
|
a. 1,2. Agriculture and mining
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
b. 3,4,5. Manufacturing,
utilities, construction
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
c. 6,7. Wholesale and retail
trade, transport and communication
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
d. 8. Finance, insurance, real
estate and business services
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
e. 9. Community, personal and
other services, domestic,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
f. Government
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
g. Other
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Definitions:
National Product (GNP) by industry sector is contained in National
Accounts. These figures should be updated to 1993 values using the US$ price
index in annexe. The classification used here is an abbreviated form of the
SITC standard industry classification, which is used for standard national
accounting.
National and city employment. Economically active persons by
industry, preferably including the informal sector. If activity is not
customarily defined in these categories, either estimate or group the
categories - for example, at the minimum, agriculture, manufacturing, and
total service employment are generally known.
Income ratio. If city income and national income are known to be significantly
different, then this ratio should be an estimate of average city wage in the
industry divided by average national wage (e.g. if city wages are 20% higher,
the ratio is 1.2). Otherwise the ratio should be taken as 1.
The city industry product (Column E) is then estimated as
Column (E) = Column (A) x Column (C) x Column (D) /
Column (B),
which is the national industry product times the fraction of
national employment in the city times the wage ratio.
The final category, Other, cannot be estimated by this
method, since it includes items such as ownership of dwellings which do not
involve employment. It can be estimated by presuming it is the same fraction
of city product as for the national product.
METHOD B:
If industry employment figures
are not known, then the city product can be estimated approximately from
average household income figures as follows:
City Product = (GNP) x
(number of households in the city) x (average household income in the city)
(total national household income,
from national accounts)
|
|
Gender:
|
One must keep in mind that what
women do is not entirely recorded in this measures, especially in developing
countries, where a large part of women’s work is not accounted, through
informal and unpaid work (not necessarily housework). Therefore, the city
product must be carefully interpreted, and one must take into account other
qualitative information. Efforts are being made to improve the measurement of
women’s remunerated and unremunerated contributions to the economy in the
system of national accounts following the
Nairobi-forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women. Experimental
compilation is still necessary to develop an “augmented” estimate of gross
domestic product that takes into account household domestic work and
reproduction not included at present. Future development are necessary to
develop a measure of the “real” city product taking into account the large
non-remunerative contribution of women, which is an important data for
analyzing the urban economic activity.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 12 (urban population
growth), indicator 20 (informal employment), indicator 22 (unemployment).
|
|
Indicator 22:
|
Unemployment
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Encourage public-private sector partnership and stimulate
productive employment opportunities
|
|
Significance:
|
Urban economies are integral to the process of economic
transformation and development. They are the prerequisite for the creation of
a diversified economic base capable of generating employment opportunities.
Many new jobs need to be created in urban areas (Habitat Agenda, paragraph
155). Stimulating productive employment opportunities is also part of the
general goal of social development. Employment should generate income
sufficient to achieve an adequate standard of living for all people, men and
women (Habitat Agenda, paragraph 118a). In industrialized countries,
unemployment rates are the best-known labour market measures and probably the
most familiar indicators of all to express the health of the economy and the
success of government economic policy. Unemployment is, however, a formal
labour market concept which is often not applicable in developing countries
with their large informal sector. Indicator 20 (informal employment) may
constitute a better indicator for developing countries.
|
|
Definition:
|
average proportion of unemployed (men and women)
during the year, as a fraction of the (formal) workforce.
As per the currently definition used by the International Labour
Office, the unemployment rate is defined, mathematically, as the quotient
resulting from dividing the total unemployed (for a country or a city) by the
relevant labour force, which itself is the sum of the employed and the
unemployed.
|
|
Methodology:
|
According to the currently used resolution adopted by the 13th
International Conference of Labour Statisticians, unemployed persons are defined
as those individuals without work, seeking work in a recent past period, and
currently available for work.
Household labour force surveys are generally the most
comprehensive and comparable sources for unemployment statistics. Other
sources include population censuses, employment office records and official
estimates. In OECD countries, comparability issues have been addressed in
published standardised unemployment rates adjusted to ILO concepts.
|
|
Gender:
|
Women’s contribution to the economy is measured through their
contribution in terms of women’s share in the labour force. Women have
generally a lower status regarding employment and constitute a smaller part
of the work force, they are generally more affected by unemployment.
Since the 1970s, the growing participation of women in the labour
force has been accompanied by decreasing employment opportunities in
agriculture. One of the obvious consequences is the migration of women
towards urban areas in search of jobs. In Latin America and East Asia most
migrants from rural areas to urban areas are women. Evidence suggests that
only a few women have access to formal employment and that most of them are
vitally dependent on the informal economy for their own and their family’s
survival. Many women also join low
paid and unskilled jobs. In developed countries, unemployment affects more
women than men, and women also join low paid jobs.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 11 (poor households),
indicator 12 (urban population growth), indicator 9 (crime rates), indicator
21 (city product).
|
|
Qualitative
data 6 :
|
Level of decentralization
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
GOVERNANCE
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Promote
decentralisation and strengthen local authorities.
|
|
Significance:
|
Decentralization is part of the general goal of institutional
development. Sustainable human settlements will increasingly depend on the capacity
of all levels of government to reflect the priorities of communities, to
encourage and guide local development and forge partnerships. This can be
achieved through the effective decentralization of responsibilities, policy
management, decision-making authority and sufficient resources (Habitat
Agenda, paragraph 177). The questions below attempt to determine the level of
decentralization and independence of action of local governments. It is
considered particularly important that local governments should know what
level of funding they will receive from higher governments, either as a
formula-driven transfer or as long-term allocation. The viability of the
local government may be seriously compromised if its budget is altered
mid-term at the discretion of higher-level governments.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers should be replied to the following questions:
1)
Can higher levels of government (national, state/provincial):
a) Close the local
government (e.g. appoint an administrator or a new council, call new
elections)? (yes/no)
b)
Remove
councillors from office? (all/some)
2)
Can the local government, without permission from higher
governments:
a) Set local tax levels (property tax etc.)? (all/some)
b) Set user charges for services? (all/some)
c) Borrow funds? (all/some)
d)
Choose
contractors for projects? (all/some)
3) Is the amount of fund transfers from higher governments known in
advance of the local budget setting process ? (all/some).
If some, what is the percentage known?
|
|
Methodology:
|
These simple questions should help to assess if major
responsibilities, policy management, decision-making authorities and
resources been decentralised at the local level.
|
|
Gender:
|
In the process of decentralisation, one must ensure that both men
and women are given equal opportunities in participating in major
responsibilities, policy management, decision-making authorities.
Both men and women should be involved on prioritisation,
consensus, action plans and institutionalisation. Gender in participatory
decision-making can be measured through the four key participatory-decision
making developed by UNCHS (Habitat) and proposed as a complementary tool for
the Istanbul +5 assessment.
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|
Collection
level:
|
city level, national level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 6 (access to water),
indicator 7 (household connections), indicator 10 (poor households),
indicator 16 (wastewater treated).
|
|
Qualitative
data 7:
|
Citizen involvement in major
planning decisions
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
GOVERNANCE
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Encourage and support participation and civic engagement
|
|
Significance:
|
To encourage and support
participation, civic engagement and the fulfillment of government
responsibilities, national Governments, local authorities and/or civil
society organizations should put into effect, at appropriate levels,
institutional and legal frameworks that facilitate and enable the broad-based
participation of all people in decision-making and in the implementation and
monitoring of human settlements strategies, policies and programmes (Habitat
Agenda, paragraph 182). Participatory mechanisms should ensure that all
voices are heard in identifying problems and priorities, setting goals and
implementing programmes and projects.
Citizen participation in local
government is an important part of democracy and self-determination; as well
a strong local support base for government is better able to monitor citizen
needs, maintain a watchful eye over operations, and represent the wishes of
the citizenry.
Civic engagement and
participation are less effective without well-informed public. Education and
the open flow of information are the necessary cornerstones of a democratic
society.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers should be replied to the following questions:
Are cities involving the civil society in a formal participatory
process prior to:
(a)
new major roads and highway proposals?
(yes/no)
(b)
alteration in zoning? (yes/no)
(c)
major public projects? (yes/no)
|
|
Methodology:
|
A formal participatory process might involve: public
announcement, receipt and processing of objections, public meetings and
consultations, formation of oversight committees involving non-governmental organisations
and public representatives.
|
|
Gender:
|
Gender in participatory processes can be measured through the
four key participatory-decision making developed by UNCHS (Habitat) and proposed
as a complementary tool for the Istanbul +5 assessment.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
qualitative data 8
(transparency and accountability).
|
|
Qualitative
data 8 :
|
Transparency and accountability
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
GOVERNANCE
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Ensure transparent, accountable and efficient
governance of towns, cities and metropolitan areas.
|
|
Significance:
|
Ensuring transparent and accountable Governments is part of the
general goal of enablement and participation. Governments are committed to
the strategy of enabling all key actors in the public, private and community
sectors to play an effective role in human settlements and shelter
development (Habitat Agenda, paragraph 44). In order to do so, they have
committed themselves to the objectives of enabling local leadership,
promoting democratic rule, exercising public authority and using public
resources in order to ensure transparent and accountable governance of towns, cities and metropolitan areas. Indication that transparency
and accountability are ensured can be answered through the existence of
regular independent auditing and municipal accounts, publication of contracts
and tenders for municipal services, sanctions against faults of civil
servants, laws on disclosure of potential conflicts of interest.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers should be replied to the following questions:
At the city level, are there:
(a)
regular independent auditing of municipal
accounts (yes/no);
(b) published contracts and tenders for municipal services (yes/no);
(c) sanctions against faults of civil servants (yes/no);
(d) laws on disclosure of potential conflicts of interest (yes/no).
|
|
Methodology:
|
Auditing of municipal account
should be regular (annual or biannual). They should also be conducted by
independent auditors.
There should be institutionalised mechanisms which ensure that
contracts and tenders for municipal services are always published in order to
ensure an adequate competitive transparent and open process in contracting.
There should also be institutionalised mechanisms which ensure
systematic sanctions against faults of civil servants at all levels.
Finally, laws should exist on disclosure of potential conflicts
of interest. They imply that public offices are in place to disclose wealth
and other sources of income.
|
|
Gender:
|
One must make sure that both men and women are involved in existing
mechanisms and processes which ensure openness and accountability at the
municipal level.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
qualitative data 7 (citizen
involvement in major planning decisions).
|
|
Indicator
23:
|
Local government revenue and
expenditures
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
GOVERNANCE
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Ensure transparent, accountable and
efficient governance of towns, cities and metropolitan areas.
|
|
Significance:
|
Sustainable human settlements can be achieved through the
effective decentralization of responsibilities, policy management,
decision-making authority and sufficient resources (Habitat Agenda, paragraph
177). The amount of local government revenue is an important indicator, which
determines the level of effectiveness of local authorities. While revenue is
an important piece of information which indicates the level of income which
municipalities are able to raise from their residents, the business and industries
and from higher levels of government, the amount of local government
expenditure is another important piece of information on the degree of
responsiveness of local government to the infrastructure needs of industries,
services and residents. The level of capital expenditure varies dramatically
across cities and regions. The outcomes in terms of quality of service
provision are obvious. A low level of capital expenditure correlates with a
low level of access to services, poor water treatment (indicators 7 and 16)
and waste collection, for example. A low level can also indicate that many
local services have been privatised. In some cities, the high level of
revenue and investment is due to the fact that local governments are
responsible for virtually the whole range of local services.
|
|
Definition:
|
total local government revenue
from all sources in US dollars annually, both capital and recurrent, divided
by population (3 year average) and capital expenditure in US dollars per
person, by all local governments in the metropolitan area, averaged over the
last three years.
|
|
Methodology:
|
Local government revenue is the total local government
sources of funds in US dollars annually, both capital and recurrent, for the
metropolitan area, divided by population (three year average). It usually
includes:
·
Taxes: municipal rates and levies, any
local taxes on the transfer of property, and any other taxes such as
entertainment or hotel taxes, motor vehicle taxes, and taxes on business,
which do not reflect the direct provision of services.
·
User charges: local government charges
for services provided, such as water, refuse collection, building permits.
Betterment levies are also be included.
·
Other own source: interest and
principal received, sales of capital items, but not donations, voluntary
contributions or aid.
·
Transfer: formula driven payments (such as repatriation of income tax) or
other grant donations from national or state governments.
·
Loans: borrowing from all sources,
including bonds.
·
Other may include donations or aid.
Separate results by sources of
revenue can provide a useful information over time.
Capital expenditures include both fixed capital and
plant as per the capital account. It should be a three year average because
infrastructure investment may be spread over time in an unequal manner. The
amount of investment is affected by the ability of local governments to
obtain loan finance for capital investments and by grants from higher levels of
government.
|
|
Collection
level:
|
city level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
Indicator 6 (access to water),
indicator 7 (households connections), indicator 21 (city product),
qualitative data 5 (public-private partnerships), qualitative data 8
(transparency and accountability).
|
|
Qualitative
data 9 :
|
Engagement in international
cooperation
|
|
|
|
|
Reporting chapter:
|
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
|
|
|
|
|
Habitat Agenda commitment:
|
Enhance international cooperation and
partnerships.
|
|
Significance:
|
The formulation and
implementation of strategies for human settlements development are the
primary responsibility of each country at the national and local levels,
within the legal framework of each country. The overall decline of official development
assistance, however, is a serious cause of concern. Innovative approaches and
frameworks for international cooperation in the development and management of
human settlements must be sought and developed to include the active
participation of all levels of governments, the private and cooperative
sectors, non-governmental organisations and community based organisations in
decision-making, policy formulation and resource allocation, implementation
and evaluation.
|
|
Definition:
|
Yes/no answers and numbers should be replied to the following
questions:
(1)
Is the country involved in international
cooperation ?
As receiver ?(yes/no)
As donor ? (yes/no)
For donor countries:
(2)
What is
the total amount provided to urban areas, in how many countries ?
For recipient countries and cities:
(3)
What is
the total amount received by the country ? By the city ?
For all cities:
(4)
Is the
city affiliated to one or more international association of local authorities
? (yes/no)
(5)
Is the
city involved in direct city to city cooperation ? (yes/no)
|
|
Methodology:
|
Parallel to these questions, it might be interesting to assess in
which particular areas has international cooperation made progress (capacity
building, technology transfers, etc.).
|
|
Collection
level:
|
National
and city level.
|
|
Linkages:
|
indicator 21 (city product), indicator 24 (local government
revenue and expenditure).
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Back to Top
The
Indicators Toolkit is a user-friendly spreadsheet form in Microsoft Excel
format included in the attached diskette (or available on the following
homepage: http://www.UrbanObservatory.org/indicators ).
It
will make reporting an easy process for both cities and countries and will
ensure that response are provided in a uniform and comparable format. Unless
the city or country is not in a possession a computer with the Excel software
(usually a standard programme of all windows systems), it is highly recommended
to use the Indicators Toolkit. It will help avoid errors at all levels and in
the final global database for Istanbul +5 which should have the best possible
results.
Steps
for using the Toolkit :
1.
Open
the toolkit file from the Toolkit diskette. It is called Toolkit.xls.
2.
Save
the file in a new name on your computer. The name should be the name of the city
or the name of the country you want to report on (for example: Nairobi.xls,
Kenya.xls).
3.
Read
carefully the pages entitled ‘Presentation’ and ‘Instruction’ in order to get
more information on the Toolkit.
4.
Go
to the third page entitled ‘Reporting sheet’ and fill the results in the
highlighted cells. Do not forget to fill the identification part on the Focal
point identification.
5.
Print
the document and distribute it to a few colleagues and experts for data
checking.
6.
On
a separate page, indicate the sources and methods used for each of the 23
indicators and qualitative data.
7.
Save
the toolkit file with your results on a diskette on which you indicate the name
of the city and country.
8.
Send
it to the Urban Indicators Programme, Nairobi, either as an email attachment
(preferably) or by mail to the address mention below. Do not forget to attach
your page on the sources and methods used for the results.
Back
to Top
a) Adjusting Money quantities to US dollars
Conversions to 1993 and 1998 dollars from local
currencies in different years can be
done by using International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1993 and 1998,
International Monetary Fund. For each country, a yearly average exchange rate
is given in line af or ah of the country table. The amount in USD can be
calculated by dividing the local currency amount by af or multiplying by ah,
depending on which is quoted, for that year. This should then be converted to 1993
and 1998 dollars by dividing by the US consumer goods price index, which is
quoted in the following tables.
Adjusting to
1993 US$ Adjusting
to 1998 UD$
|
Year
|
Price
index
|
|
Year
|
Price
index
|
|
1987
|
0.842
|
|
1992
|
0.990
|
|
1988
|
0.864
|
|
1993
|
0.998
|
|
1989
|
0.913
|
|
1994
|
0.981
|
|
1990
|
0.962
|
|
1995
|
0.969
|
|
1991
|
0.981
|
|
1996
|
0.995
|
|
1992
|
0.989
|
|
1997
|
1.010
|
|
1993
|
1.000
|
|
1998
|
1.000
|
For example, if the median annual household income in
Nairobi, Kenya was found to be 22000 Kenya shillings in 1989, the conversion
rate in line (af) for Kenya was 21.6 Ksh/ $ in that year, so that the annual
income in 1993 values was 22000 / 21.6 = $ 1019. Converting to 1993 values, the
annual income was 1019 / 0.913 = $ 1116.
Back
to Top
b) General definitions
Adult population: for
employment indicators, this should be taken as persons of 15 years of age or
more. In other indicators relating to family type, the term should refer to
persons having reached majority or voting age, or defined as adult for census
purposes.
Economically active population comprises all persons over 15 years of age who furnish the supply
of labour for the production of economic goods and services. The production of
economic goods and services includes all production and processing of primary
products, whether for the market, for barter or for own consumption, the
production of all other goods and services for the market, the corresponding for
own consumption. Economically active population includes all persons who are
either employed or unemployed.
Head of household: The notion of head of household assumes that most households are family
households (in other words, that they consist entirely, except possibly for
domestic servants, of persons related by blood, mariage or adoption) and that
one person in such family household has primary authority and responsibility
for household affaires and is, in majority of the cases, its chief economic
support. This person is then designated as the head of household.
Household: a person or
group of persons who make common provision for food or other essentials of
living, and often share a common budget. A group of people who eat one meal
together daily may be considered a household. This definition includes domestic
servants.
Household income: the
total income from all sources of all household members, including wages,
pensions or benefits, business earnings, rents, and the value of any business
or subsistence products consumed (e.g. foodstuffs). Payments such as allowances
or board from one household member to another should not be counted twice.
Metropolitan area: the politically defined urban area for planning or administrative
purposes which combines all local jurisdictions normally regarded as part of
the greater urban area.
Urban: the classification ‘urban’ is
based on the definition applied in national statistical practices and
exercises.
Urban agglomeration: defined as the city proper along with the suburban fringe and any
built-up, thickly settled areas lying outside of, but adjacent to, the city
boundaries.
Women-headed households: a household headed by a woman, i.e. who has the primary authority
and responsibility for the household’s affairs, usually as chief economic
support (see above definition of head of household). However, in most
countries, women are not usually enumerated as heads of households unless they
are either living alone (that is, in one-person household) or there is no adult
male in the household.
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